Teaching in America Essay - 3668 Words

Teaching in America ABSTRACT: The term teaching is usually used in the Academy without a clear sense of what is meant, resulting in imprecise and ineffective teaching. The standard lines-that teaching is a matter of applying approved methods, that teaching is mostly a matter of teaching skills-as-means to some career or whatever-are reflective of failure in the Academy, measured in its defect rate of around 30 percent. The definition of teaching I sketch-skills adopted from a theoretical foundation, in turn based on a critique-is well founded in the scholarly tradition. Such a definition is, however, challenging to an Academy at the end of an ancien rà ©gime. It has been apparent for a couple decades that something is wrong†¦show more content†¦(2) On the other hand, a review of the ERIC articles database turns up recent reports suggesting that two-year college students are not likely to complete the programs they enter, and are even less likely to enter baccalaureate programs for reasons that are unclear. The anecdotal accounts are more puzzling. E. g.: A staffer in the thirty-year-old experimental college of a selective private university in the New York area reports that, despite higher-than-average SAT scores in its entering classes, students basic skills, especially writing skills, continue to slide. The common response to all this confusion has been to develop methods through which new teachers may be guided into paths of righteous and effective teaching of their various disciplines. The ERIC articles database is chock full of reports of this and that method for teaching this or that subject. Quite prestigious universities grant doctoral degrees to people who develop new methods. How-to-teach courses are increasingly a feature of graduate programs in otherwise research-oriented regimens. Presidents and deans make it a point to show up at such offering words of wisdom about the importance of teaching. The line is, We mustnt forget, we are a teaching institution. In the system where I teach that is a direct and institutionalized reference to a difference from other colleges of the system. No one ever seems to get around to saying just what teaching is. The ResultingShow MoreRelatedTeaching in America: God in Schools826 Words   |  3 PagesEvery job opportunity can have ups and downs within it. Teaching is not an exception; there are many different jobs involving teaching, including teaching in the government run public schools. Since the public schools are run by the government they have certain laws and restrictions that the teachers must abide by. One such law is influencing children to consider a certain religious belief during class time. Even though teachers in public schools are not allowed to mention their personal religionRead MoreMy Speech On Teaching And America s Future1692 Words   |  7 PagesCommission on Teaching and America’s Future, almost half of teachers quit the profession after five years. I am beginning that critical fifth year mark as a teacher; however†¦I am not joining the ranks of teachers to leave. In fact, each passing school year confirms to me why teaching is my calling. I live for t hose eureka effects, â€Å"aha!† moments, tightly squeezed hugs, sparkled eyes, and much more! Every day I walk into my classroom ready to teach as if my hair is on fire! People think teaching has beenRead MoreThe Teaching Of Native American History And The Colonization Of America1406 Words   |  6 Pages The teaching of Native American history and the colonization of America is often misconstrued, with the complete, and â€Å"actual†, story almost always being concealed behind the bare minimum of historical evidence. For a country more concerned with impartialness now than ever, the truth about past relations with Native Americans should be a key component in the education of students across the nation. The realization and acceptance of this nation’s disreputable past involving indigenous people, thoughRead MoreTeaching For America s Most Valuable Asset1859 Words   |  8 Pagesfrom the young age, leading them to the right path and showing them how important education is. Teach for America improves and nourishes America’s most valuable asset – the children. It provides leadership in the low-income school communicates that need quality education for the children who are less fortunate, and lack funds and opportunities. History and Interesting Facts Teach For America is a nationally recognized program that recruits, selects, trains, places, and supports new teachers, whomRead MoreTeaching For America Has A Vast Array Of Benefits For It Members872 Words   |  4 PagesTeach for America has a vast array of benefits for it members. The members will receive a full first year salary, health benefits, a signing bonus (a stipend offered by AmeriCorps), access to discounts, such as SAT and MCAT prep courses, waived application fees for graduate degree programs. Teach for America members develop leadership, management, and critical thinking skills. 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I am originally from a country where one must spend four years in institution specially designed for prospect teachers. After four year education, a person finally qualifies to take notorious teaching certification exam. Not everyone with four year degree in teacher’s university passes the exam. And that is not the end either. After obtain a certification, traineeRead MoreAmerica The Beautiful Essay Assignment789 Words   |  4 PagesCurtis Vannor America The Beautiful Essay Assignment In life, a person with morals is usually very ethical and has high values and strong religious beliefs. These people know right from wrong and prefer to do what they think is right in any given situation. This is what morality is, having the knowledge to know right from wrong. In Dr. Ben Carson’s America the Beautiful, he states that this nation, The United States of America, was founded with the concept of morality in mind. He also arrivesRead MoreThe Reasons For Teaching As A Profession913 Words   |  4 PagesPersonal satisfaction, enjoyment of the subject matter, and the desire to work with young people has been the central reasons for individuals choosing teaching as a profession (Curtis Wise, 2012). Teachers believe that by working with young people can make a difference in the lives of those young people. Teaching provides a sense of purpose. Teachers have the opportunity to build a student’s confidence, help to shape dreams, provide redirection, and impact knowledge and wisdom on a daily basisRead MoreEssay on Teaching Morals and Ethics in Public Schools1108 Words   |  5 PagesTeaching Morals and Ethics in Public Schools I find myself disagreeing with Kozol and his statement that schools should be an institution where morals can be taught and developed. It is my belief that schools should not be held responsible for instilling morals and ethics into the minds of Americas children. Of course, it is true that schools should instill and reinforce morals that are part of our everyday existence. Those of the Golden Rule, as well as the wrongs of death and destruction

Sexual Identity in the Arab World Free Essays

The ways in which regimes of law, cultural identity and state governance shape understandings of Muslim or Arab sexualities are many. In his article â€Å"Re-Orienting Desire: The Gay International and the Arab World† Joseph Massad outlines some of these regimes. Massad argues that western orientalists and colonialists altered the way Muslims viewed their own sexuality by bringing into consciousness the idea of gay rights and thus homosexuality where it did not previously exist. We will write a custom essay sample on Sexual Identity in the Arab World or any similar topic only for you Order Now Because of this, Massad argues that the western influence completely transformed how Muslims understood their own sexuality. In the beginning of his article Massad points out how Arab and Iranian men would engage in both gay and heterosexual practices while simultaneously rejecting the ‘Western identity’ of gayness. While this opposes the idea of Western homosexuality it reflects an Arab understanding of sexuality as being fluid and not tightly restrained by identifying as either ‘gay’ or ‘straight. ’ This changed over time as Western influence became more prevalent in the Arab world through culture exchange. Massad refers to this cultural exchange by introducing the Gay International, a sort of missionary group who aims to ‘stabilize’ the sexual instability found within Arab societies. In other words, the Gay International aims to promote its views on sexuality and liberate Arabs into the Western world of homosexuality. This highlights how sexual identities can be created and can travel between societies through the work of individual groups. The Gay International succeeded in creating and dividing Arabs into two new forms of identity -both homo and hero sexuality, where previously these were unfamiliar concepts. As opposed to Western societies, Massad notes how the Arabic language only recently adopted words for homosexuality and heterosexuality. Further, the word for sexual deviance was only coined in the mid 19050 and is understood to refer to the Western concept of homosexuality. These examples of language show how Western concepts shape Muslim understandings of sexuality by introducing certain terms that reflect Western born concepts. By forcing Muslims to identify as homosexuals this placed them into a social group that could be targeted by police and government agencies. As noted in the article, police were able to target men â€Å"who identify as ‘gay’ on a personal level and who seek to use this identity as a group identification†¦ † The labeling of Arab men as homosexuals made them vulnerable to police attacks against this ‘socially deviant’ behavior. As a result of the introduction of Western cultural concepts of sexuality, Arab men were subsequently subject to repression by state government forces. Police targeting is not the only form of a state government’s control over sexual identity. Because homosexuality in the Arab world was transformed from a practice into an identity this made it also subject to antihomosexual laws. The Western concepts of sexuality have thus created a new cultural identity that is regulated by law and enforced by state governments in the Arab world. Nadine Naber’s paper entitled â€Å"Arab American Femininities: Beyond Arab Virgin/American(ized) Whore† highlights the conflicting identities of homo and heterosexuality while also showing how individuals deal with and combat socially constructed norms in an Arab context. Nadine analyzes ideas about virginity and homosexuality by interviewing young women who grew up surrounded by these issues. One of Nadine’s interviewees, Lulu, a gay Arab woman, describes how the connotation of homosexuality as being a Western concept was so engrained in her upbringing that she felt she could not be gay and Arab at the same time as they were such opposing identities. In Lulu’s case, she was able to resist the exorcising identity of being gay in an Arab family by seeking support from queer Arab groups. She was able to form a family with other socially ostracized women who were also shunned by the Arab belief that homosexuality is a Western born and promoted idea. By choosing these women as her ‘family’ Lulu is able to resist the patriarchal and heterosexual ideals of Arab culture. Lulu insists that ‘queer Arabs exist’ which is in itself an act of resistance against homophobic Arab understandings of sexuality. Because many Arabs view homosexuality as being created by Western culture they are able to sustain their cultural views on exuality by blaming gay identifying Arabs as being Americanized. This is one way Arabs are able to resist the Western binary form of identity as either a hetero or a homo sexual. Gay Arabs are simply non existent without American influence. In terms of the gay individuals themselves, they must also choose to resist or assimilate -or a combination of the two- into Western ideas of sexuality in order to understand their own sexual i dentity. In Lulu’s case, she chooses to resist the ‘normal’ path of an Arab women -who is to remain a virgin until she is married off- by openly identifying as gay. In the eyes of her parents she has chosen sex over her family and thus rejected her Arab family and culture. In her family’s view there is no way to combine a gay identity with the socially constructed views on sexuality found in Arab culture. Lulu rebels from her family’s views on Arab sexuality by embracing the identity of a gay Arab woman. Not only does Lulu rebel by identifying as gay but by doing this she simultaneously rejects the ‘virgin until married’ ideal bound to the heterosexual norm of Arab identity. While Massad’s work identifies the structures behind the creation of sexual identities and how these travel beyond state lines, Nadine’s paper shows how these constructed sexual identities affect individual’s understandings of their own identities in their every day lives. Nadine’s paper gives a personal face to sexual identity issues, showing how the cultural understandings of sexual identity laid out in Massad’s article effect those who are marginalized by the very dialogue that is used to define them. How to cite Sexual Identity in the Arab World, Essay examples

Efficient use if paper rule free essay sample

Every page must be consecutively numbered. Sec. 5. Copies to be Filed. Unless otherwise directed by the court, the number of court†bound papers that a party is required or desires to file shall be as follows: In the Supreme Court, one original (properly marked) and our copies, unless the case is referred to the Court En Bane, in which event, the parties shall file ten additional copies. For the En Bane, the parties need to submit only two sets of annexes, one attached to the original and an extra copy. For the Division, the parties need to submit also two sets of annexes, one attached to the original and an extra copy. All members of the Court shall share the extra copies of annexes in the interest of economy of paper. Parties to cases before the Supreme Court are further required, on voluntary basis or the first six months following the effectivity of this Rule and compulsorily afterwards unless the period is extended, to submit, simultaneously with their court- bound papers, soft copies of the same and their annexes (the latter in PDF format) either by email to the Courts e-mail address or by compact disc (CD). We will write a custom essay sample on Efficient use if paper rule or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page This requirement is in preparation for the eventual establishment of an e-flling paperless system in the Judiciary. b. In the Court of Appeals and the Sandiganbayan, one original (properly marked) and two copies with their annexes; In the Court of Tax Appeals, one original (properly marked) and two copies with annexes. On appeal to the En Bane, one original (properly marked) and eight copies with annexes; and d. In other courts, one original (properly marked) with the stated annexes attached to it. Sec. 6. Annexes Served on Adverse Party. A party required by the rules to serve a copy of his court-bound paper on the adverse party need not enclose copies of those annexes that based on the record of the court such party already has in his possession .

Julus Caesar - Analysis Of Caesar Essays - , Term Papers

Julus Caesar - Analysis of Caesar Essay on Caesar In Shakespeare's play of "Caesar" Brutus is a conspirator who portrays a person who favors a republic for Rome. Brutus is an honorable man. Many characters in the play show there reverence for Brutus. Brutus exemplifies his honor in many ways. Brutus is obsequious when he is needed to abet his fellow romans. Brutus is an honorable man. "Am I entreated to Speak and Strike? O Rome I make thee promise, If the redress will follow, then receivest thy full petition at the hand of Brutus" (Shakespeare 397). Brutus will obey to whatever the romans convey to him. Consequently, Brutus joins the conspiracy inorder to help the romans rid rome of Caesar. Brutus also understands that he is putting it all on the line for his romans, therefore Brutus is an honorable man. Brutus is a scrupulous man, whose virtues endure. "No not an oath, If not by the face of men, the sufferance of our souls, the time's abuse-If these motives be weak, break off betimes, and every men hence to his idle bed; So let high sighted tyranny rage on, till each man drop by lottery" (Shakespeare 399). Brutus said that if the conspirators do not join for a common cause, then there is no need for an oath because the conspirators are self-righteous, and they are serving the romans. If the conspirators don't bind together, then each man will go his own way, become a weakling, and die when it suits the tyrants caprice. Brutus is advocates peace, freedom and liberty, for all romans, which shows that Brutus is an altruistic as well as an honorable man. Brutus also had a compassion for Caesar when he had killed Caesar. "If then that a friend demand why Brutus rose against Caesar, this is my answer: Not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more" (Shakespeare 421). Brutus had honored Caesar but Brutus felt that Caesar was to ambitious. Brutus also felt that Caesar made the romans as slaves. Therefore, Brutus is an honorable man. Brutus is a noble man who was revered by many. Brutus had j oined the conspiracy because he had the desire to help the commoners. He was a follower of idealism, where the romans would possess peace, liberty and freedom. Brutus wanted the kill Caesar, because he believed that all of the people of Rome would eventually be slaves, thus Brutus resorted to the assassination if Caesar. Brutus is a honorable man. Marcus Brutus was a good friend to Julius Caesar, but not good enough. He had moral values dealing with Rome and its people. Brutus' values then made him join a conspiracy against Caesar put together by Cassius. Brutus joined this mainly because he didn't want Caesar to turn his back on Rome so there would be a reasonable reason for killing Caesar. If Brutus wasn't in the play, there would be no "Tragedy" in The Tragedy of Julius Caesar.

Galileo Galilei Essays - Copernican Revolution, Galileo Galilei

Galileo Galilei Essays - Copernican Revolution, Galileo Galilei Galileo Galilei Galileo Galilei's father, Vincenzo Galilei (c.1520 - 1591), who described himself as a nobleman of Florence, was a professional musician. He carried out experiments on strings to support his musical theories. Galileo studied medicine at the university of Pisa, but his real interests were always in mathematics and natural philosophy. He is chiefly remembered for his work on free fall, his use of the telescope and his employment of experimentation. After a spell teaching mathematics, first privately in Florence and then at the university of Pisa, in 1592 Galileo was appointed professor of mathematics at the university of Padua (the university of the Republic of Venice). There his duties were mainly to teach Euclid's geometry and standard (geocentric) astronomy to medical students, who would need to know some astronomy in order to make use of astrology in their medical practice. However, Galileo apparently discussed more unconventional forms of astronomy and natural philosophy in a public lecture he gave in connection with the appearance of a New Star (now known as 'Kepler's supernova') in 1604. In a personal letter written to Kepler (1571 - 1630) in 1598, Galileo had stated that he was a Copernican (believer in the theories of Copernicus). No public sign of this belief was to appear until many years later. In the summer of 1609, Galileo heard about a spyglass that a Dutchman had shown in Venice. From these reports, and using his own technical skills as a mathematician and as a workman, Galileo made a series of telescopes whose optical performance was much better than that of the Dutch instrument. The astronomical discoveries he made with his telescopes were described in a short book called Message from the stars (Sidereus Nuncius) published in Venice in May 1610. It caused a sensation. Galileo claimed to have seen mountains on the Moon, to have proved the Milky Way was made up of tiny stars, and to have seen four small bodies orbiting Jupiter. These last, with an eye on getting a job in Florence, he promptly named 'the Medicean stars'. It worked. Soon afterwards, Galileo became 'Mathematician and [Natural] Philosopher' to the Grand Duke of Tuscany. In Florence he continued his work on motion and on mechanics, and began to get involved in disputes about Copernicanism. In 1613 he discovered that, when seen in the telescope, the planet Venus showed phases like those of the Moon, and therefore must orbit the Sun not the Earth. This did not enable one to decide between the Copernican system, in which everything goes round the Sun, and the Tychonic (Tycho Brahe) one in which everything but the Earth (and Moon) goes round the Sun which in turn goes round the Earth. Most astronomers of the time in fact favoured the Tychonic system. However, Galileo showed a marked tendency to use all his discoveries as evidence for Copernicanism, and to do so with great verbal as well as mathematical skill. He seems to have made a lot of enemies by making his opponents look fools. Moreover, not all of them actually were fools. There eventually followed some expression of interest by the Inquisition. Prima facie, Copernicanism was in contradiction with Scripture, and in 1616 Galileo was given some kind of secret, but official, warning that he was not to defend Copernicanism. Just what was said on this occasion was to become a subject for dispute when Galileo was accused of departing from this undertaking in his Dialogue concerning the two greatest world systems, published in Florence in 1632. Galileo, who was not in the best of health, was summoned to Rome, found to be vehemently suspected of heresy, and eventually condemned to house arrest, for life, at his villa at Arcetri (above Florence). He was also forbidden to publish. By the standards of the time he had got off rather lightly. Galileo's sight was failing, but he had devoted pupils and amanuenses, and he found it possible to write up his studies on motion and the strength of materials. The book, Discourses on two new sciences, was smuggled out of Italy and published in Leiden (in the Netherlands) in 1638. Galileo wrote most of his later works in the vernacular, probably to

Tit-for-Tat

Tit-for-Tat Tit-for-Tat Tit-for-Tat By Maeve Maddox An ESL reader has a question about the expression â€Å"tit for tat†: If Tit is something we all commonly understand then is Tat the male counterpart of Tit? What does Tit and Tat mean in this idiom? The impulse to attach a gendered meaning to the words in this idiom illustrates how folk etymologies are invented. In fact, â€Å"tit for tat† is an altered spelling of the expression â€Å"tip for tap.† In the context of the original idiom, both tip and tap refer to a slight blow. Tip retains this meaning in the context of baseball. A pitch at which the batter swings and makes slight contact is called a tip. A â€Å"foul tip†- a tipped ball caught by the catcher- counts as a strike. Tap, in the context of lightly striking something, is in general use as both noun and verb: Stopped at the traffic lights, he heard a tap on the window. (noun) If a person has had multiple untreated concussions, could a simple tap to the head be harmful? (noun) She paused, leaned over, and tapped him on the chin. (verb) Woman in Court Fakes Hurt After Being Tapped on Head (verb) â€Å"To give one tip for tap† was â€Å"to return blow for blow.† The figurative meaning was â€Å"to retaliate.† When the pronunciation and spelling changed, the original meaning remained attached to the altered form. Here are examples of recent usage of â€Å"tit for tat†: For the rest of the game, each  team  matched the other  tit for tat. Three men  have  been arrested after a series of violent  tit-for-tat  attacks  Ã‚   [G]iven the way Netanyahu has treated Rivlin, one cannot help wondering if there will be tit for tat following the March elections.   In the world of education, and most likely everywhere else, there is the pervasive presence of tit-for-tat. If I walked a mile to school in the snow, so can you. If I had to work hours and shed blood, sweat and tears, so can you. â€Å"To give tit for tat† is not always used with the meaning â€Å"to return an injury with an injury.† Some speakers use it to convey the idea of cooperation or reciprocation: Gifts should not be  tit for tat, period.   When we hear the following expressions, we know the Law of Reciprocity is at work: â€Å"Quid pro quo†; â€Å"Scratch my back and I’ll scratch yours†; â€Å"Tit-for-tat†; and â€Å"Give and take.† In Cockney rhyming slang, â€Å"tit for tat† translates as â€Å"hat.† Note: Rhyming slang uses a phrase to stand for a word that rhymes with the last word in the phrase. The phrases are then shortened to the beginning word or words. For example, the sentence â€Å"Me trouble bought ‘erself a new tit-fa† translates as â€Å"My wife bought herself a new hat.† (â€Å"trouble and strife†=wife). Here are some more words and expressions that convey the sense of â€Å"to give tit for tat†: fight back hit back respond react reciprocate counterattack return like for like get back at someone get even get one’s own back pay someone back give someone a taste of their own medicine take revenge be revenged avenge oneself Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Expressions category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:"Based in" and "based out of"Anyone vs. EveryoneThe 7 Types of Possessive Case

International Trade Finance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

International Trade Finance - Essay Example This report looks into various aspects of international trade finance in relation to Stainless Cookware Ltd. The report will first analyse import/inward documents against payment collection in international trade since the company also engages in inward trade that requires inward financing and documentation. The report will also identify an appropriate banking product that Mr. Gupta, the director of the company can use to finance imports. The Incoterm that is currently used in the Saudi contract will also be evaluated, and recommendation will be given on whether another alternative may be used. Furthermore, the report will highlight how else the bank may protect the company. Advantages of invoicing using the USD will also be discussed while at the same time providing the three quotes alongside their sterling equivalent. This will demonstrate a deep application of international finance in the case study. There are also some documentation and other e-commerce financial aspects that can be used in international trade. Methods of payment in international trade will further be analysed. The Stainless Steel Cookware records its imports on documents against payment (DP) collection. The DP mechanism involves the release of import documents upon payment by the buyer. It is a crucial method of payment in international transactions which can enhance faster and effective payment for Stainless Steel Cookware. In this mechanism, the exporter asks the bank to present shipping and title documents to the importer only when he pays for the bill of exchange or draft. This is cash against documents, and it ensures that the importer pays for the goods as he takes possession of them (Carr & Stone, 2013). DP is therefore an effective method of payment for Stainless Steel Cookware because it ensures that the importers of its goods pay for their imports as

Q Thesis Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Q - Thesis Example This can be because agility is still new in the world of manufacturing. Nevertheless, it has existed since the 1980s (Garbie, Parsaei, and Leep 2) and has been practiced by manufacturing firms. Agile manufacturing system is similar to value management in the context of concept and purpose. Agile focuses on decreasing time, achieving customer’s satisfaction through fast and quick delivery of products and services, and minimizing surplus inventory. Businesses and organizations of the age of globalization employ many strategies to improve their agility level. Improving organizational strategies, business concepts and innovations, value management and value engineering in construction, are just a few of these innovations. Value management addresses problems which are still unknown but can be addressed to properly when the time comes. It is being conducted by a value management team composed of the stakeholders of the project who use materials and procedures that would provide optimum benefits. All stakeholders have to work together as a team to enforce the necessary measures to minimize unnecessary cost and optimize value for the project. Petroleum companies need innovations as the industry is labor-intensive and requires a great amount of capital in running the business. Reducing operating costs is one of the strategies of petroleum companies. In the corporate world, they have almost the same concept of agility, which is cutting costs and then lowering the operating expenses, and adding the saved money to expenses for the sales force and research and development, or for other important activities in the business. (Graham, Ware, and Williamson 31) Humans create knowledge in social interactions. Petroleum companies create knowledge structures, places and mechanisms for the creation of knowledge, whether this is through the interaction of employees and

Cold War and for its continuance to1956 Essay Example for Free

Cold War and for its continuance to1956 Essay How far do you agree that ideological rivalry between the superpowers was primarily responsible for both the origin of the Cold War and for its continuance to 1956? Certainly, the ideological rivalry that existed between the East and the West, concerning Communism and Capitalism was the largest factor to fuel the lengthy cold war, but there were other smaller factors that inflamed the conflict and ensured its continuance. Almost all of these factors can be drawn back to the fundamental contradictory ideologies and most of which were reactions against the others respective policies, such as Comecome was the Soviet response to the Truman doctrine/ Marshall Aid, and the Warsaw Pact a reaction to the creation of NATO. As the Second World War came to an end in 1945 it became clear that pre-war revulsion for the respective ideologies was ready to once again rear its ugly head. The war time association between the US and the Soviet Union had existed simply to unite against an enemy that if faced alone, neither could have overthrown. By 1945 it was obvious that Hitler and Nazi Germany were reaching the end of their powerful and destructive lifetime. With the downfall of their enemy, the two superpowers had no common ground and were therefore left to return to their nations and their respective pre-war international policies. Both Russian and American ideologies can only be fully understood or explained by looking at their individual roots. America, as it stands today was founded less than two hundred years ago, with such a short national history and no legs to stand on, it is no wonder they are so scared of other ideologies, and insist on enforcing their bogus democracy, liberty and freedom on other countries with no allowance or acceptance of other ways of living. The basis of US foreign policy since 1945 has been the idea of containment, sketched out by George Kennan in the Long Telegram of 1946. Kennan argued that the methods and goals of the US and the SU were irreconcilable and therefore the US should prepare for a long struggle. At some point the illegitimate government of the SU would collapse from within and the struggle would be over, as almost perfect prophecy of what was to happen years later. During the late Middle Ages, Russia had been isolated from Europe by Mongol occupation, once Russia gained its freedom from the Mongol yoke and attempted to become a European power, it found that it lacked the technology and culture of the West. Furthermore, it was an underdeveloped peasant society, embracing enormous geographical expanse. The challenge was to change and modernize the country. Russian leaders from Ivan the Terrible onwards were all faced with the problem of transforming this backward society. In 1917, the Bolsheviks inherited these traditional Russian preoccupations; however they also inherited a desire to define themselves and pursue her own unique national calling rather than simply follow in a Western pattern of development. The Soviet Union, Stalin declared, did not need the West, but could succeed on its own. Additionally, while the Bolsheviks embraced the Marxist vision of a universal pattern of development, they also inherited Marxs ambivalent attitude to capitalism and his desire to see its destruction. Suspicion of the West thus came to be deeply embedded in the Bolshevik mentality; the West was the enemy against which Bolshevism defined its identity. It was therefore, essentially, a reactive identity; Soviet socialism, constructed as a protest against Western capitalism, was an anti-world to Capitalism (Kotkin 1995). Personality clashes between the two superpower leaders, Stalin and any of the US Presidents once again comes back to their completely opposing ideological beliefs and their individual fears of the others possible world domination. So when Stalin died in 1953 it was unclear how, or even if, Soviet politics could maintain its hard-line policies both internationally against America and internally. However, in 1956 Khrushchev, the new Soviet leader made his famous secret speech, clearly criticizing Stalin this, almost even more clearly than even Stalins death, signified the end of Stalinism. Khrushchevs appointment marked the end of the relationship between Stalin and the West. Brimming with positive ideas for peaceful coexistence, and a much larger power base than Stalins dictatorship ever allowed, the relationship between Khrushchev and the west began, and thats a whole other story. The Cold War was an ideological and geographical struggle between two opposing systems. Equally important, it was a struggle that took place during the first fifty years of the nuclear age, and the existence of nuclear weapons greatly affected the nature of the struggle. The black cloud of nuclear Armageddon hung over the entire cold war period. Yet, thankfully, the bomb was never used to attack after 1945 by either the United States or the Soviet Union. Although this war was nothing like either the first or second world war, the rest of the world was dragged in too. The Korean War was labeled the cold war in the east by one historian. (sorry know this bit should be much much longer) At no point in history, from before the 16th century have two superpowers been able to coexist, there has always been a single hegemonic power. Yet Hollands influence in the 16th century and Portugals colonization of Spain and South America, and even the British Empire would never have been labeled superpowers. Perhaps this is because although these countries had influence, they did not have the power to destroy the world at the press of a button. Nonetheless in this nuclear era there is even less room for two major powers, and even though the ideologies are complete opposites, the cold war can be explained as a power struggle between two big kids, fighting for their right to be the biggest bully in the playground. Although this certainly wasnt the first, or indeed the last, war that America has won I feel that this is almost the most important win in US, indeed even world, history. The battle of two superpowers, both with the ability to destroy the world, and that only, by the collapse of the Soviet Union in the late 20th century, allowed the US to appear as the winner and assume the position of the worlds only superpower and subtly declare itself world leader. I believe the cold war is one of the largest factors for causing the American superiority which had the cold war had a different outcome perhaps would have been suppressed or even seen the Soviet Union develop the ignorance and superiority that is so fiercely disliked by much of the world. I fully agree that fundamentally the cold war was a confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union, fuelled on both sides by the belief that the ideology of the other side had to be destroyed. It is because of this that co-existence was not possible- one side could only win at the expense of the other, no matter how long either side had to wait for their victory, the ideological hatred ran so deep that both sides that neither side was prepared to jeopardize their own way of life for the benefit of the other. The Soviet Union held to Lenins belief that conflict between communism and capitalism was inevitable. The United States believed that peace and stability in the world would only emerge when the evil of communism had been exorcised. At the ideological level Moscows communist world-view, which saw capitalism as absolute evil, fed off Washingtons world-view, which saw communism as an absolute evil, and in this way helped to sustain the others prophecy. Every action that either power took was followed by an almost immediate reaction from the other, the continuation of the Cold War not only until 1956 but until the Soviet Unions downfall in 1970/80s, was continually fueled by actions and reactions which were sometimes insignificant but which also brought the world closer than ever to a full scale nuclear war. Bibliography Stalinism, An Overview P. Boobbyer 2000 The Cold War John W. Mason Sarah Holtam Page 1 2/5/8/2007

Radical Feminism and Hip Hop Essay examples -- Music Analysis

Since its emergence in the South Bronx in the 1970’s, hip hop has spread to both urban and suburban communities throughout the world. Once an underground genre of music, it is seen in commercials, movies, television shows, etc. It has transformed from music and expanded into a full culture. It has even made its way into fashion and art. Men have always been on the front line of Hip Hop. However, the lyrics and images have changed tremendously. Lyrics and images that once spoke upon the injustices and empowerment for the African American people is now filled with money, cars, jewelry, and of course women. Today’s hip hop generation is criticized for its negative portrayal of women. Every music video that is produced features scantily clad women with dancing sensually. Feminists speak against them because they are continuing to sexualize the female form, degrade women by using terms such as â€Å"bitch† and â€Å"hoe† to describe them, and in all continuing to make them second class citizens. Radical feminism focuses on such oppression in society and the existence of patriarchy/male dominance. All of which is evident in Hip Hop. Patriarchy creates a social division. It is often used to describe the power between a male and a woman. This idea is important in Radical Feminism. Seen as the root of female oppression, Radical Feminists recognize that patriarchy is everywhere. Radical feminist came about because they were not happy with the course of action taken by the first wave of feminists. Radical feminists wanted a revolution, not just reform; they wanted to do things their way as opposed to following â€Å"the system†. So they came up with their own theories that fit their way of thinking and often were at odds with the reformer feminists... ...lackademics.org. Word Press, 2006. Web. 01 May 2012. . Burke, Colleen. "Women and Militarism." Women and Militarism. Women's International League for Peace and Freedom. Web. 05 May 2012. . Hooks, Bell. "Sexism and Misogyny: Who Takes the Rap?" Race & Ethnicity. Web. 06 May 2012. . Hooks, Bell. We Real Cool: Black Men and Masculinity. New York: Routledge, 2004. Mgadmi, Mahassen. "Black Women’s Identity: Stereotypes, Respectability and Passionlessness (1890-1930)." LISA E-Journal. Web. 06 May 2012. . Zieber, Maureen. "Definition of Radical Feminism." Suite101.com. Web. 08 May 2012. .

The Bonsai

Bonsai All that I love I fold over once And once again And keep in a box Or a slit in a hollow post Or in my shoe. All that I love? Why, yes, but for the moment — And for all time, both. Something that folds and keeps easy, Son’s note or Dad’s one gaudy tie, A roto picture of a young queen, A blue Indian shawl, even A money bill. It’s utter sublimation A feat, this heart’s control Moment to moment To scale all love down To a cupped hand’s size, Till seashells are broken pieces From God’s own bright teeth. And life and love are real Things you can run and Breathless hand overTo the merest child. – Edith L. Tiempo * * * A first reading of Edith L. Tiempo’s signature poem is a tad confounding, for the first lady of Philippine poetry in English deploys the centripetal-centrifugal-centripetal (or inward-outward-inward) motion in expressing her profoundest thoughts and deepest feelings about love. The title itself, â€Å"Bonsa i,† is a bit misleading, since nowhere else in the poem are there any further references to plant life or the ancient Japanese technique of cultivating miniature trees or shrubs through dwarfing by selective pruning.Some might even argue that â€Å"Origami† is the better title choice, for at least the persona’s act of folding objects is a bit analogous to the Japanese art of paper folding to make complicated shapes. But this reader will prove at the end of this essay that â€Å"Bonsai† is the most appropriate title for the poem, something that is not quite obvious to most people after their perfunctory appraisal of this often misread literary masterpiece. However, despite the false lead, even a cursory perusal of the poem reveals to the sensitive and sensible reader that â€Å"Bonsai† is about love, if only because the four-letter word is mentioned in all four stanzas.In the first stanza, the persona declares that she folds everything that she loves and keeps them hidden in secret places: â€Å"a box,/ Or a slit in a hollow post,/ Or in my shoe. //† What then are the things she considers imperative enough to keep? At first glance, the catalogue of her beloved objects in the second stanza appears to be disparate, unrelated, almost random, if not completely aleatory. But since a literary sorceress like Tiempo seldom commits mistakes in conjuring appropriate images, then there must a be reason for singling out these particular items and not others.The more important query therefore is this: What do â€Å"Son’s note or Dad’s one gaudy tie,/ A roto[i] picture of a young queen,/ A blue Indian shawl, even/ A money bill. //† share in common? Besides being foldable and thus easy to keep, they must symbolize for the loving female persona important individuals and incidents in her life. For as the semiotician Roland Barthes correctly observes in A Lover’s Discourse: â€Å"Every object touched by the lo ved being’s body becomes part of that body, and the subject eagerly attaches himself to it. [ii] If we are to assume that the speaking voice of â€Å"Bonsai† closely resembles the poet’s own, then the first three objects must represent members of her immediate family: son Maldon; husband Edilberto (It is a well-known fact among writing fellows and panelists of the Silliman Writers’ Workshop that Edith fondly called the late fictionist and literary critic â€Å"Dad,† while being addressed by her husband as â€Å"Mom,† which is a common practice among Filipino couples. ; and daughter Rowena (Unknown to many, the current Program Administrator of the Iowa Writers’ Workshop is a former winner of the Miss Negros Oriental beauty contest sometime in the 1970s, another indicator of the Filipino flavor of the poem, since the Philippines is a pageant-obsessed Third World country. ). The referents of the last two items are more covert and thereby more difficult to decipher. At best, we can only speculate on the persons and/or events that make the two things significant: blue Indian shawl (Edith’s engagement date with Edilberto, her first winter in Iowa, her last autumn in Denver? ; money bill (Her initial salary from Silliman University, cash prize from the Don Carlos Palanca Memorial Awards for Literature? ). In the long run though the indeterminacy of the allusions does not really matter, for the opaqueness of the symbols leads not to generic obscurity and obfuscation, but to personal mythology and mystery. Perhaps part of the poem’s message is that the things a person considers memorable and therefore valuable most other people might think of as debris, detritus or dirt. Note that the adverb â€Å"even† modifying â€Å"money bill† is used to indicate something unexpected or unusual, which in the context of the poem seems to suggest that a money bill is not a conventional object to collect and treasure even by the most sentimental of persons. ) Suffice it to say that all five objects, which are outwardly ordinary and nondescript, acquire associative significations because they serve for the poetic persona as conduits of recall, like mementoes, souvenirs and keepsakes.Interestingly, the second stanza commences with what appears to be a rhetorical question (â€Å"All that I love? †), which the persona answers with a paradox: â€Å"Why, yes, but for the moment —/ And for all time, both. † The significance of these seemingly self- contradictory lines will be discussed towards the end of this essay, but for now this reader will focus on the fact that the persona pauses to contemplate on the germane issue of the scope of her love, before she proceeds to enumerate her loved ones’ memorabilia that she has decided to vouchsafe.Love for the female persona therefore is a conscious choice, a cognitive act not only an affective one, a motif that recurs in v arious degrees in most of her other love poems. In the third stanza, the persona explains the rationale behind her action: It’s utter sublimation A feat, this heart’s control Moment to moment To scale all love down To a cupped hand’s size, The keyword here is sublimation, which in psychology is the deflection of sexual energy or other atavistic biological impulse from its immediate goal to one of a higher social, moral or aesthetic nature or use.In chemistry, on the other hand, sublimation is the process of transforming a solid substance by heat into a vapor, which on cooling condenses again to solid form without apparent liquefaction. Inherent in both definitions is the act of refinement and purification through fire, since to sublimate in a sense is to make something sublime out of something sordid. In the latter a literal fire dissolves through a crucible the dross from the precious metal, while in the former it is furnace of the mind that burns away the supe rfluous from the crucial experiences.The second most important idea in this stanza is the procedure of scaling love down, which Tiempo asserts is a feat by itself, an exceptional accomplishment of the female persona’s sentimental heart which is achieved through utmost discipline and restraint. But aside from mere manageability, why is it necessary to miniaturize love, to whittle it down to the size of â€Å"a cupped hand†? The answer to this pertinent question is given, albeit in a tangential fashion, in the fourth and last stanza: â€Å"And life and love are real/ Things you can run and/ Breathless hand over/ To the merest child. Love as â€Å"real things† or concrete objects rather than as abstract concepts is easier to pass on, since it has become more tangible and thus more comprehensible to most everyone else, including children and one’s beloved offspring. It also underscores the importance of bequeathing the legacy of love to the next generation, since as the cliche goes â€Å"children are the future of the world,† which makes â€Å"the merest child,† and not the wisest woman nor the strongest man, the ideal recipient of such a wonderful gift.The image of the cupped hand also emphasizes the idea that in the act of giving the one offering the bequest is also a beggar of sorts, since the beneficiary can always refuse to accept the heirlooms being proffered. But another important element is introduced in the ultimate stanza, for the persona by some extraordinary leap of the imagination perceives the seashells on the beach as â€Å"broken pieces/ From God’s own bright teeth,† which for a better understanding of â€Å"Bonsai† must be elaborated on, so that readers of Philippine poetry from English can fully appreciate the tight structural organization of the poem.Gemino H. Abad in his remarkable essay â€Å"Mapping Our Poetic Terrain: Filipino Poetry in English from 1905 to the Present†[i ii]connects this image to the paradoxical lines of the second stanza â€Å"for the moment —/ And for all time, both. † This reader cannot help but agree, since indeed the five objects mentioned by the persona being mementoes of the people she loves are metonyms of memory, shattered but shimmering fragments of chronology, captured important moments immortalized in the heart and mind, if we are to visualize Time itself as a manifestation of God.Of greater consequence, thought, is that this divine figure completes Tiempo’s poetic picture about love and remembrance by adding the spiritual detail, for love like the unmentionable Hebrew name of the Almighty is also a Tetragrammaton, a four-letter word, which has probably engendered the often-quoted adage that â€Å"God is Love, and Love is God. † Structurally speaking, her most famous poem can thus be diagrammed in this manner: TREE/SHRUB ——- bonsai LOVE ————- sonâ€⠄¢s note, Dad's one gaudy tie, etc.GOD ————– seashells MAN/WOMAN ——– merest child On the left side of the chart are the huge objects, concepts or people: full-size flora (Tree/Shrub), big abstract words (Love, God) and grownups (Man/Woman). Their miniature analogues, in contrast, are found on the right side of the chart. However, these diminutive parallels, especially the mementoes, retain the spirit of their larger versions, since the process of sublimation reduces things only in terms of size but not in essence.Ultimately, this makes â€Å"Bonsai† the perfect title of the poem, for a bonsai has all the necessary parts that make a tree or a shrub what it is: roots, a trunk, branches, leaves and flowers, albeit in smaller portions; in the same manner that love even if sublimated by the heart and the mind still preserves its sum and substance, its lifeblood in the truest sense of the written word and the word made flesh.

How does discrimination affect people with mental illness?

People with mental health problems experience many different types of stigma. This article explores the attitudes and beliefs of the general public towards people with mental illness, and the lived experiences and feelings of service users and their relatives. Keywords: Mental health/Mental illness/Stigma/DiscriminationThis article has been double-blind peer reviewed5 key points 1. Stigma can affect many aspects of people’s lives 2. Self-stigma is the process in which people turn stereotypes towards themselves 3. How the general public perceive people with mental health problems depends on their diagnosis 4. Stigma can be a barrier to seeking early treatment, cause relapse and hinder recovery 5. Future research should investigate the experiences of service users and their families to understand and measure the impact of stigmaStigma can pervade the lives of people with mental health problems in many different ways. According to Corrigan (2004), it â€Å"diminishes self-esteem and robs people of social opportunities†. This can include being denied opportunities such as employment or accommodation because of their illness. Stigma in the form of social distancing has been observed when people are unwilling to associate with a person with mental illness. This might include not allowing the person to provide childcare, or declining the offer of a date (Corrigan et al, 2001).Self-discrimination or internalised discrimination is the process in which people with mental health problems turn the stereotypes about mental illness adopted by the public, towards themselves. They assume they will be rejected socially and so believe they are not valued (Livingston and Boyd, 2010).Being discriminated against has a huge impact on self-esteem and confidence. This can increase isolation from society and reinforce feelings of exclusion  and social withdrawal. The Queensland Alliance for Mental Health (2010) observed that people with mental health problems are  "frequently the object of ridicule or derision and are depicted within the media as being violent, impulsive and incompetent†. It also found that the myth surrounding violence has not been dispelled, despite evidence to the contrary.In light of this, the Department of Health (2004) funded a programme called Shift, which aimed to reduce the discrimination that those with mental ill health face. The DH (undated) found that â€Å"many people with mental health problems say that the biggest barrier to getting back on their feet is not the symptoms of illness, but the attitudes of other people†.Reviewing the literatureEBSCO was used to access the CINAHL, BNI and MEDLINE databases to search for available literature with the keywords â€Å"discrimination† and â€Å"mental† in article titles. This produced a total of 428 articles. The search was then limited to narrow down the number of results. Limits were applied as follows: Publication date was set between Janu ary 2000 and December 2010; Original research studies and journal articles were specified; The age range was limited to over 17 years old.The refined search resulted in 155 articles.In order to assess which articles were relevant, further inclusion and exclusion criteria were set. For example, articles that included the general public’s perception and attitudes towards mental health were included, and only primary research articles were used. Twelve articles matched the criteria.FindingsThe literature reviewed suggested that the way in which the general public perceive people with mental health problems depends on their diagnosis. Those with schizophrenia are seen as dangerous and unpredictable (Crisp et al, 2000).People with alcohol and drug addictions are not only seen as dangerous, but the public also blame them for their addiction (Crisp et al, 2005). There still seems to be a general consensus that anyone with mental  illness is unreliable, especially in terms of looki ng after children. Many believe having a mental illness reduces intelligence and the ability to make decisions (Angermeyer and Matschinger, 2005).Discrimination and stimga have been linked to ignorance and studies show the majority of the public have limited knowledge of mental illness, and the knowledge they do have is often factually incorrect. Many still believe schizophrenia means having a split personality. In addition, many do not understand the difference between mental illness and learning disabilities and there is still a common misconception that those with depression can â€Å"snap out of it† (Thornicroft, 2006).Depression and anxiety disorders do not have the same weight attached to them as psychotic illnesses but they are nonetheless stigmatised. People with depression are often seen as lazy and hard to talk to (Thornicroft, 2006). Public opinions seem to be held across the board, with no significant differences in relation to gender, education level and income. However, there were differences between age groups, with those in their teens or early 20s and those over 50 expressing the most negative attitudes (Alonso et al, 2009; Crisp et al, 2005).Crisp et al (2005) noted those in the 16-19-year age range had the most negative attitudes towards people with mental illness, particularly towards those with alcohol and drug addiction. These results are surprising considering widespread reports of young people’s alcohol and drug use. These findings reflect a â€Å"them† and â€Å"us† type of thinking and suggest that many of those who use alcohol and drugs do not consider the possibility that they could become addicted themselves.There were some indications that public opinion had become more positive, suggesting greater tolerance and understanding towards mental illness than in previous years (Angermeyer and Matschinger, 2005). However, these findings should be interpreted with caution; the DH (2001) found huge discrepancies between the views the public expressed in surveys and the actual behaviour as experienced or witnessed by service users and service providers.The mediaThe media have often been accused of sensationalism by portraying mental illness inaccurately in their quest to gain higher ratings. However, the media can also play an important role in reaching out to many different audiences to promote mental health literacy. Celebrities such as Stephen Fry (diagnosed with bipolar disorder) have spoken publicly about their illness and this seems to be effective in reducing stigma (Blenkiron, 2009). Chan and Sireling (2010) described a new phenomenon in which patients are presenting to psychiatrists claiming to have and seeking a diagnosis of bipolar disorder.However, the lived experiences of mental health service users tell a different story to the findings on public attitudes. In the articles reviewed service users said they experienced stigmatising attitudes and behaviours in many aspects of the ir lives. Common themes emerged across the articles. Many people felt stigmatised as soon as they were diagnosed with a mental illness, and attributed this to the way in which their illness had been portrayed in the media (Dinos et al, 2004). Receiving a stigmatising label has such a negative effect on people that the Japanese Society of Psychiatry and Neurology – at the demand of the patients’ families group – changed the name of schizophrenia from â€Å"mind-split-disease† to â€Å"integration disorder† (Sato, 2006).EmploymentMany people with mental health problems experienced discrimination when applying for jobs. This included trying to explain gaps in their CV due to episodes of mental ill health. They not only experienced stigma when applying for jobs, but also found that when returning to work colleagues treated them differently, with some experiencing bullying, ridicule and demotion. Service users also faced the dilemma of whether to disclo se their illness to friends, family, colleagues or future employers. Many felt they could tell their partner or parents about having a mental illness and still feel supported, but only 12% felt able to tell colleagues (Bos et al, 2009).Social stigmaService users reported social discrimination in the community, giving accounts of being physically and verbally attacked by strangers and neighbours, their property being vandalised, or being barred from shops and pubs; those with addictions or psychotic illness tended to experience this more than those with non-psychotic illness. Reports also included examples of being spoken to as if they were stupid or like children, being patronising and, in some instances, having questions addressed to those accompanying them rather than service users themselves (Lyons et al, 2009). Dinos et al (2004) found service users felt a range of emotions surrounding their experiences of discrimination, including anger, depression, fear, anxiety, isolation, gu ilt, embarrassment and, above all, hurt.Health and relationshipsService users also encountered discrimination when accessing services such as GPs. They reported professionals as being dismissive or assuming that physical presentations were â€Å"all in the mind† (Lyons et al, 2009). This can result in reluctance to return for further visits, which can have a detrimental effect on physical health. This is especially significant, as evidence suggests people with mental illness are at greater risk from physical health problems, including cardiovascular disease, diabetes, obesity and respiratory disease; they also have a higher risk of premature death (Social Exclusion Unit, 2004).Developing mental illness can also lead to breakdowns in relationships with partners, family and friends. The SEU (2004) reported that a quarter of children had been teased or bullied because of their parents’ mental health problems. Evidence shows rates of comorbidity of drug and alcohol use and psychiatric problems are believed to be rising (SEU, 2004).Implications for nursingStigma can affect many aspects of people’s lives. Even a brief episode of mental illness can have far-reaching effects on wellbeing, disrupting work, families, relationships and social interactions, impacting on the health and wellbeing not just of patients, but also of their families and friends. This can lead to further psychiatric problems such as anxiety and depression.Stigma can be a barrier to seeking early treatment; often people will not seek professional help until their symptoms have become serious. Others disengage from services or therapeutic interventions or stop taking medication, all of which can cause relapse and hinder recovery.If mental illness is treated early enough, it can reduce further ill health, and ultimately the risk of suicide. By intervening at the earliest possible opportunity, people may be able to avoid a full episode of mental ill heath, and retain their jobs, relationships or social standing.The International Council of Nurses (2008) said nurses are fundamental in helping with the â€Å"promotion, prevention, care, treatment and rehabilitation of people living with mental health problems and support of their families and communities†. It is therefore imperative to reduce the stigma surrounding mental health and stop these factors impinging on people’s mental wellbeing.The National Service Framework for Mental Health incorporated standards services must follow to provide consistent quality of care (DH, 1999). These included guidance on â€Å"social inclusion, health promotion, tackling stigma and the promotion of opportunities for a normal pattern of daily life†. The DH (2001) concluded that â€Å"everyone has mental health needs, whether or not they have a diagnosis of mental illness†. Box 1 features recommendations of ways to help reduce the stigma experienced by mental health service users.RecommendationsAs the media can play an important role in reaching out to many people, it is important to work with and educate them to ensure the portrayal of mental illness is factual, impartial and reliable As those aged under 19 years had particularly negative opinions towards all mental illness, attempts should be made to educate this age group about the issue, particularly on the dangers and effects of substance misuse and addiction In order to plan future services and shape policies further research must be undertaken with people who have direct experience of mental illness to gain more understanding of the impact stigma has on their livesConclusionThe literature confirms the public hold negative beliefs about those with mental health problems. Despite national campaigns, there has not been a significant change in the way the public perceive mental illness. While much research has been carried out to explore the public’s perception of mental illness, future research should explore the e xperiences of service users and their families, carers or people close to them to understand and measure the impact that stigma has on their lives. This, in turn, could help to shape interventions and policies for improved legislation to help stop the discrimination faced by those with mental illness.References:Alonso J et al (2009) Perceived stigma among individuals with common mental disorders. Journal of Affective Disorders; 118: 180-186. Angermeyer MC, Matschinger H (2005) The stigma of mental illness in Germany: A trend analysis. International Journal of Social Psychiatry; 51: 276-284. Blenkiron P (2009) Psychiatry in the Media. London: Royal College of Psychiatrists. Bos AE et al (2009) Mental illness stigma and disclosure: consequences of coming out of the closet. Issues in Mental Health Nursing; 30: 509-513. Chan D, Sireling L (2010) ‘I want to be bipolar’ †¦a new phenomenon. The Psychiatrist; 34: 103-105. Corrigan P (2004) How stigma interferes with mental health care. The American Psychologist; 59: 7, 614-625. Corrigan P et al (2001) Prejudice, social distance, and familiarity with mental illness. Schizophrenia Bulletin; 27: 219-226. Crisp AH et al (2005) Stigmatization of people with mental illnesses: a follow-up study within the Changing Minds campaign of the Royal College of Psychiatrists. World Psychiatry; 4: 106-113. Crisp AH et al (2000) Stigmatisation of people with mental illnesses. The British Journal of Psychiatry; 177: 4-7. Department of Health (undated) Stigma.

The Impact of AIDS on Medicaid †Nursing Research Paper

The Impact of AIDS on Medicaid – Nursing Research Paper Free Online Research Papers The Impact of AIDS on Medicaid Nursing Research Paper For more than 50 million low-income Americans, the Medicaid public health program is the primary source of health-care coverage and provider of long-term care (Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, 2004, September). For this group of people, private health insurance is not a viable option. Such benefits are often times either unavailable from their employers or are priced immediately out of their income-range. In other instances, these low-income Americans are disqualified by private insurers based upon their disabilities or pre-existing chronic conditions. This latter fact becomes particularly poignant when considering the future health-care prospects of the estimated 1 million people currently living with AIDS (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2005). Although many individuals begin their treatment with private coverage, the debilitating aspect of AIDS is such that many must eventually give up their jobs and, in turn, lose the source of their costly private insurance. In situations like these, the role of Medicaid becomes paramount to life itself. Without the indispensable doctor care and prescription drugs provided by Medicaid, the recent life-extending advances in AIDS therapy would be lost to an alarming number of patients. The latest published findings by the Centers for Medicare Medicaid Services (CMS) reveal that, in 2003, over 231,000 people living with AIDS relied upon Medicaid for health services – and this number was expected to rise (2004, January). To understand what these numbers portend for the future, it necessary to examine the historical context of AIDS and Medicaid, the impact of the AIDS epidemic thus far, and what might be done to ensure quality Medicaid care for generations to come. Historical Background of Medicaid The federal Medicaid program was signed into law, along with Medicare, by President Lyndon B. Johnson under Title XIX of the Social Security Act in 1965 (Johns Hopkins AIDS Service, 2004). Medicaid was enacted to address a growing national debate regarding the limitations and failings of the presiding health-care legislation for the elderly and poor, the Kerr-Mills Act of 1960. Under this act, participating states could collect matching federal funds for services tendered to the aged or the impoverished yet it received a lukewarm response from the states for the most part. The reasons cited by critics were Kerr-Mills’ narrow scope of coverage and its inequitable matching-grant formula that often resulted in poorer states receiving the least amount of federal aid. With less than half the states opting to take part in the national health-care program at its peak, it was clear that Johnson’s â€Å"Great Society† was calling for new direction (Michigan State University, School of Social Work, 2004). What it received in Medicaid was a comprehensive replacement for all government health plans and the largest public assistance program in the nation. Historical Background of AIDS On June 5th, 1981, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported an â€Å"unusual outbreak of Pneumocystis carini pneumonia among five gay men in Los Angeles.† Around the same time, an aggressive form of Kaposi sarcoma was reported in eight gay men in New York (AVERT.org, 2005). In the coming months, although health officials could not explain the sudden wave of opportunistic infections amongst gay males, the general public was calmed by the overriding theory that these incidents were simply a â€Å"gay plague† – nobody else could be infected. This naà ¯ve assumption was proven false, however, when cases of PCP began showing up in intravenous drug users in December of 1981 and the first documented case was reported in the United Kingdom (AVERT.org, 2005). By July of 1982, the number of recognized cases of this frightening illness had swelled to 453, in 23 states (AVERT.org, 2005). By August, the new disease was finally being called by an official name: Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS). It was also alarmingly apparent that a much larger segment of the population was at risk than had previously been imagined. In December, a child contracted AIDS through a series of blood transfusions, and in early 1983, the first reports of heterosexual transmission began coming to light (AVERT.org, 2005). At the end of the year, the number of official AIDS cases in the U.S. was 3,064, and of these, 1,292 had died. About this time, reports depicting the new, fatal wasting disease were arriving steadily from Europe and Africa as well. The â€Å"gay plague† was now on its way to becoming an epidemic of world-wide proportions (AVERT.org, 2005). Overview of MEDICAID Medicaid is a jointly-financed, means-tested program of the federal and state governments wherein states administer benefits to eligible participants under a broader scope of federal guidelines. On the federal level, Medicaid is governed by the Centers for Medicare Medicaid Services, which establishes the minimum requirements that states must adhere to in order to qualify for federal funding. In its current form, the federal government pays for 50 to 77 percent of all Medicaid spending, depending upon state capita income (Kaiser Commission on Medicaid and the Uninsured, 2005). Simply put, states containing the highest number of â€Å"qualified poor,† receive the highest rate of matching subsidies from the U.S. government. Federal Minimum Eligibility Requirements To meet the criteria for federal matching funds, states must provide services to people receiving â€Å"federally assisted income maintenance payments, as well as for related groups not receiving cash payments (Karger Stoesz, 2005, p.324).† Also known as the â€Å"categorically needy,† these related groups include: Individuals meeting the requirements for the Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) program that were in effect in their State on July 16, 1996. Children under age 6 whose family income is at or below 133 percent of the Federal Poverty Level (FPL). Pregnant women whose family income is below 133 percent of the FPL (services to these women are limited to those related to pregnancy, complications of pregnancy, delivery, and postpartum care). Supplemental Security Income (SSI) recipients in most States (some States use more restrictive eligibility requirements that pre-date SSI). Recipients of adoption or foster care assistance under Title IV of the Social Security Act. Special protected groups (typically individuals who lose their cash assistance due to earnings from work or from increased Social Security benefits, but who may keep Medicaid for a period of time). All children born after September 30, 1983 who are under age 19, in families with incomes at or below the FPL. Certain Medicare beneficiaries (Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, 2004, December). Federal Minimum Service Requirements In addition to the socio-economic requirements mentioned above, federal policy also mandates a specific array of services that all states must offer in their Medicaid programs. Typical services include: Inpatient hospital services. Outpatient hospital services. Prenatal care. Vaccines for children. Physician services. Nursing facility services for persons aged 21 or older. Family planning services and supplies. Rural health clinic services. Home health care for persons eligible for skilled-nursing services. Laboratory and x-ray services. Pediatric and family nurse practitioner services. Nurse-midwife services. Federally qualified health-center (FQHC) services, and ambulatory services of an FQHC that would be available in other settings. Early and periodic screening, diagnostic, and treatment (EPSDT) services for children under age 21 (Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, 2004, December). Federally Sanctioned Optional Services Finally, there are 34 optional services that states can extend to recipients which also qualify for federal financial support. Some of the more popular benefits include: Prescription drugs and prosthetic devices. Clinic services. Diagnostic services. Optometrist services and eyeglasses. Nursing facility services for children under age 21 (Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, 2004, December). It is essential to keep in mind that once the mandatory federal requirements have been met, states are then free to operate their programs according to their own discretionary rules and regulations. What this means is that states have the power to decide the duration, scope, and reimbursement rate of the medical services proffered in their specific plans. While the limits themselves must be non-discriminatory and sufficient enough to attain the goal of the medical benefit, the end result is a complex assortment of 56 different Medicaid programs operating throughout the U.S. – one for each state, territory and the District of Columbia (Almanac of Policy Issues, 2000). Breakdown of Medicaid Spending The 50 million recipients of Medicaid are generally broken down into four primary groups of people: Children, Adults, Seniors, and Persons with Disabilities. The 2003 statistical breakdown of Medicaid recipients is illustrated in the chart to the right (Kaiser Commission on Medicaid and the Uninsured, 2005). While it is quickly apparent that children and adults make up the lion’s share of the Medicaid population, it should be pointed out that these two groups account for just 31 percent of program spending. The largest expenditures, 69 percent, go to seniors and people with disabilities – of which the latter group includes people living with AIDS (Kaiser Commission on Medicaid and the Uninsured, 2005). The explanation behind this lopsided proportion of spending is generally attributed to seniors and people with disabilities’ â€Å"intensive use of costly acute and long-term care services (Kaiser Commission on Medicaid and the Uninsured, 2005, p. 1).† Dual Enrollees Over 7 million members of the Medicaid population are classified as â€Å"dual enrollees† or â€Å"dual eligibles (Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, 2004, May).† In these circumstances, low-income Medicare beneficiaries are also enrolled in Medicaid. They rely on Medicaid to pay lofty Medicare premiums and co-payments as well as other benefits like prescription drugs and long-term care which are not covered at all. AIDS and Medicaid The AIDS Epidemic Today There are approximately 1 million people currently living with AIDS in the U.S., out of an estimated 1.5 million total infections since 1981. Forty thousand new cases are reported each year throughout the country – a number that has remained constant for the last 10 years. Unfortunately, reports indicate that 25 percent of those infected with HIV are unaware of their status despite attempts to promote national AIDS awareness along with early and frequent testing (Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, 2004, December). Consequently, new cases are once again expected to rise, especially amongst higher-risk populations. Groups that share a higher risk for HIV infection are typically ethnic and racial minorities that include African Americans, Latinos, and to much lesser extent, Asian/Pacific Islanders. These same groups have experienced a disproportionate share of the illness since the beginning of the epidemic with African Americans bearing the brunt of the exposure. Today, minorities in the U.S. account for 71 percent of new AIDS cases while making up less than a third of the overall population (Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, 2004, December). Gender and age play prominent roles in the spread of AIDS as well. On the gender scale, diagnoses amongst women have grown from 8 percent in 1985 to 27 percent in 2003, with women of color accounting for almost 70 percent of these new infections (Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, 2004, December). Furthermore, latest reports reveal that AIDS is particularly active within the youthful segments of the population, who transmit the virus primarily through sexual relations. Currently, more than 50 percent of all new infections in the U.S. occur in those under the age of 25 (Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, 2004, December). Women and minorities, once again, share the highest risk amongst this age bracket. Treating AIDS At the present time, it is widely-believed that AIDS is caused by the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) which is transmitted via sexual activities; needle sharing; blood transfusions; and HIV-positive mothers to their children. Once introduced into a new individual, HIV then proceeds to devastate the body’s immune system, leaving the man, woman, or child extremely vulnerable to opportunistic infections. It is important to keep in mind that people do not die of AIDS, per say. Rather, they eventually succumb to infections or cancers such as pneumonia, Kaposi sarcoma, wasting syndrome, or tuberculosis (HIV InSite, 2004). In recent years, medical science has made significant strides in HIV/AIDS therapy with the discovery of a new class of anti-HIV drugs known as protease inhibitors. Also called â€Å"combination antiretroviral therapy,† or HAART, these drugs have helped to prolong the lives of many HIV-positive individuals by strengthening their immune systems and thereby delaying the onset of AIDS (San Francisco AIDS Foundation, 2005). It should be remembered, however, that HAART is only a treatment, not a cure for AIDS, and it does not work for everyone. Furthermore, the drug regimen is both mentally and physically demanding, has many negative side-effects, and can be prohibitively expensive. Insurance Analysis of the HIV/AIDS Population The only national study of people receiving care for HIV/AIDS, conducted by the HIV Cost and Services Study (HCSUS), revealed that almost 44 percent relied upon Medicaid for coverage. Of this study, another 31 percent held private insurance, while 20 percent had no insurance whatsoever (Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, 2004, May). Uninsured members of the HIV/AIDS population were most likely relying on publicly-supported care providers like the Ryan White CARE Act clinics, the Veterans Health Administration, and community health centers. Racially, the HCSUS study observed that Medicaid played a much larger role for minority groups than it did for whites. Statistics revealed that 59 percent of African Americans and 50 percent of Latinos living with HIV/AIDS depended upon Medicaid as opposed to 32 percent of whites. Furthermore, the smallest percentage of uninsured was whites, at 17 percent, compared to 22 percent of African Americans and 20 percent of Latinos (Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, 2004, May). On a gender basis, HCSUS found that 61 percent of women used Medicaid versus 39 percent of men. A probable explanation behind this disparity was reasoned to be that higher numbers of women tend to qualify for Medicaid as a result of pregnancy and dependent children (Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, 2004, May). HIV/AIDS Spending Services The Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) estimate that, in 2004, the federal government spent $5.4, or 3 percent, of the $176 billion in total Medicaid spending on HIV/AIDS care (Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, 2004, December). These funds were paid out for a wide range of mandatory and optional services that included: Inpatient and outpatient hospital services. Physician and laboratory services. Long term care (nursing facilities and home health care for those entitled to nursing care). Prescription drugs Dental care. Clinic services. Case management. Hospice Care. Home and community-based services (HCBS) programs (Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, 2004, December). Who Qualifies For Coverage? Most people living with HIV/AIDS become eligible for Medicaid because they meet the disability and income requirements of the federal Supplemental Security Income (SSI) program for persons who are aged, blind or disabled. To qualify for SSI assistance, the current acceptable income level is about 75 percent of the Federal Poverty Level (FPL) (Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, 2004, May). While this may not seem unusual, further analysis reveals that there is, in fact, a â€Å"Catch-22† situation inherent to the system. Paradoxically, a person living with AIDS cannot gain access to benefits until he or she has physically deteriorated to â€Å"disabled† status – despite the existence of therapies that could prevent the disability in the first place. The consequences of this policy arrangement are such that it establishes an environment where recommended early care for someone diagnosed with AIDS often becomes unviable. In addition, a disincentive to work, or return to work, is created as individuals must weigh the possibility of losing their benefits against earning a paycheck and a life of some normalcy. At this point in time, there are several options being considered to address the inconsistencies in the Medicaid framework but none have been universally adopted as of yet. These include: Section 1115 waivers. Ticket to Work/Work Incentives Improvement Act of 1999 The Early Treatment for HIV Act (Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, 2004, May). Thankfully, people living with AIDS, whose incomes are higher than the acceptable SSI threshold, are not completely without recourse. Some can qualify for Medicaid based upon their eligibility for other optional plans offered on a state-to-state basis. One such example is the medically needy program which is now available in 36 states in the U.S. (Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, 2004, May). For those that meet the categorical requirements, like disability, the program allows them to â€Å"spend down† their incomes on medical expenses to meet the state’s income threshold. Thus, if a person’s income is $300 dollars over the acceptable income level but their medical bills are the same amount or higher, the individual will still qualify for Medicaid. States also have the option of raising the income eligibility standards of parents, children and pregnant women. In cases like these, the suitable poverty level percentage is raised to 133 percent of the Federal Poverty Line (FPL) all the way to 300 percent, depending upon the participating state. States can also permit flexible methodologies for assessing earnings which can result in people with higher incomes retaining their Medicaid status (Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, 2004, May). Such practices are especially significant for HIV-positive pregnant women who would otherwise be unable to afford expensive HAART drugs and could put their unborn children at risk. In a similar fashion, the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1986 gives states the power to make exceptions for elderly and disabled people with incomes up to 100 percent of the FPL. Individuals who fall under this â€Å"poverty level expansion† category enjoy full Medicaid benefits as long as they live in one of the 19 states currently making use of this option (Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, 2004, May). Looking Forward As concern for the HIV/AIDS epidemic has entered the mainstream social consciousness over the past 25 years, there is no social welfare program where this sensitivity is reflected more than on the face of Medicaid. Medicaid today receives 29 percent of the federal governments’ entire expenditure on HIV/AIDS and, consequently, it is no longer the death knell it once represented for the poor in the U.S. (Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, 2004, May). However, with more people living with AIDS then ever before and infections amongst low-income groups rising, major revisions to Medicaid are necessary in order to meet the challenges that lie ahead. 1. The Medicaid eligibility requirements must be altered to eliminate the Catch-22 predicament that stalls treatment options for too many people living with AIDS. It is absolutely vital to remember that while legislation is pending and options are being weighed and considered, access to Medicaid is a matter of life and death for potential recipients with AIDS. Moreover, studies indicate that early treatment with HAART drugs can reduce overall healthcare spending when compared to costly inpatient hospital services for acute care (Kaiser Commission on Medicaid and the Uninsured, 2003). So why must people be forced to wait until their sickness disables them before they can be saved? In a country that stresses prevention and prophylactic methods as part of its national AIDS awareness campaign, it makes very little sense (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2005). 2. Another problem that must be addressed is the issue surrounding Medicaid patients with HIV/AIDS who are entering or returning to the workforce. To provide Medicaid coverage and then yank it away at the penultimate point – when they return to work – is both insidious and â€Å"un-American,† to apply a capitalist perspective to the situation. From a capitalist point of view, more people in the workforce allegedly create a â€Å"trickle-down economy,† where all classes benefit from the profits being added to the Gross National Product. So why would the system provide disincentives to work? If AIDS recipients lose their Medicaid benefits as soon as they begin to earn a little money, they are then faced with what is in essence a â€Å"Sophie’s Choice† between good health and the glimmer of financial independence. Couple this dilemma with the fact that the Federal Poverty Level is a totally unrealistic measure of the cost of living, and the current income ranges allowable by Medicaid take on farcical proportions. What is more, these arguments exist aside from the prevailing moral issue that revolves around true quality of life. The system should not exist to prop people up and then remove their support when the prospect of a normal, healthy life draws near. Living with AIDS should never be the primary focus for anyone. The ability to pursue a rich and natural life should be the goal. 3. The variation in state Medicaid programs across the country also creates a technical morass for people living with HIV/AIDS. Because there is no universal standard for Medicaid care in the U.S., the range of benefits recipients receive can widely fluctuate from state to state. What this means is that many people with HIV/AIDS cannot afford to move around the country for fear of losing benefits that are not offered in another state. A tangential effect of this problem is that potential career opportunities in other areas of the country cannot be explored either. Finally, if the person living with AIDS happens to live in a less-generous Medicaid state, often times the individual must rely on other alternative programs or just forgo necessary services altogether. 4. For the long term, the issue that poses the single, greatest threat to Medicaid and its AIDS recipients is the ever-looming possibility of federal budget cuts. In his 2006 Budget Proposal, President Bush recommended only flat funding for a variety of AIDS programs as well as $18 million in cuts to the Housing Opportunities for Persons with AIDS Program and the CDC’s Division of HIV/AIDS Prevention (The Body, 2005). On top of these cutbacks, the budget also called for an incredible $45 billion reduction in overall Medicaid spending over the next 10 years. While such drastic cuts may seem unfathomable given the enormity of the problems Medicaid programs face, it is important to remember the prevailing social hegemony that has been in place since the Reagan administration. Twenty-six years ago, President Ronald Reagan initiated a new slate of economic policies specifically aimed at â€Å"Starving the Beast,† which in turn, effectively crippled the social welfare state to pre-New Deal levels. Little has changed today. Like his predecessor, President Bush has also increased the defense budget, allotted huge tax cuts for the wealthy, and run up an unprecedented national debt. The end result is a strained fiscal climate where social service agencies like Medicaid are typically the first to feel dramatic pinches in funding. While the Senate did elect to restore the proposed cuts on March 17th, 2005, the House of Representatives voted the opposite way, leaving the matter unresolved and the future financial plans for Medicaid in balance. This is a very haphazard way for the wealthiest country in the world to care for some of the sickest members of its population. Indeed, this â€Å"nickel and dime† approach could later prove to be a financial juggernaut as former Medicaid AIDS patients, victimized by budget cuts, require expensive inpatient and acute medical care at the end of their lives. As Ernest Hopkins, the director of federal affairs at the San Francisco AIDS Foundation, laments, How can the president call for an improved response to the epidemic but then cut or under fund the programs that are absolutely critical to achieving this goal†¦ Rhetoric without action is disingenuous (2005).† References Almanac of Policy Issues. (2000, September). Medicaid: A Program Overview. Retrieved July 11, 2005, from policyalmanac.org/health/archive/ hhs_medicaid.shtml AVERT.org, (2005, July). The History of AIDS, 1981-1986. Retrieved July 11, 2005, from avert.org/his81_86.htm Body, The: The Complete HIV/AIDS Resource. (2005, February 8). Bush FY 2006 Budget Proposal. Retrieved July 11, 2005, from thebody.com/ kaiser/ 2005/feb8_05/budget_hiv.html Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2005, June 21). A Glance at the HIV/AIDS Epidemic. Retrieved July 10, 2005, from cdc.gov/hiv/PUBS/Facts/At-A-Glance.htm Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, (2005, June 21). Prevention. Retrieved July 10, 2005, from cdc.gov/hiv/pubs/faqs.htm#general Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. (2004, December 3). Medicaid: A Brief Summary. Retrieved July 10, 2005, from cms.hhs.gov/publications/ overview-medicare-medicaid/default4.asp Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. (2004, January). Medicaid and Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) and Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Infection. Retrieved July 10, 2005, from cms.hhs.gov/hiv/hivfs.asp Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation. (2004, December). The HIV/AIDS Epidemic in the United States. Menlo Park, CA. Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation. (2004, May). Financing HIV/AIDS Care: A Quilt With Many Holes. Washington, D.C. Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation. (2004, September). Medicaid and HIV/AIDS. Menlo Park, CA. HIVInSite. (2004, September). What are HIV and AIDS? Retrieved July 11, 2005, from http://hivinsite.ucsf.edu/hiv?page=basics-00-01 Johns Hopkins AIDS Service. (2004). Medicaid Overview: Basic Program. Retrieved July 11, 2005, from hopkins-aids.edu/manage/medicaid.html Kaiser Commission on Medicaid and the Uninsured. (2005, January). The Medicaid Program at a Glance. Washington, D.C. Kaiser Commission on Medicaid and the Uninsured. (2003, August). Medicaid’s Role for People with Disabilities. Washington, D.C. Karger, H. J., Stoesz, D. (2005). American Social Welfare Policy: A Pluralist Approach (4th ed.). Boston: Pearson Education, Inc. Michigan State University, School of Social Work. (2004). Medicaid Primer. East Lansing, Michigan. Retrieved July 10, 2005, from ssc.msu.edu/ ~sw/student_res/medicaid/medicaid_primer_intro.pdf San Francisco Aids Foundation. (2005, February 15). Treatment Information. San Francisco, CA. Retrieved July 11, 2005, from sfaf.org/treatment/ Research Papers on The Impact of AIDS on Medicaid - Nursing Research PaperArguments for Physician-Assisted Suicide (PAS)Influences of Socio-Economic Status of Married MalesTwilight of the UAWMarketing of Lifeboy Soap A Unilever ProductThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug UseThe Effects of Illegal Immigration19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided EraRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andHip-Hop is ArtGenetic Engineering

Get the Definition of Schwa With Examples in English

Get the Definition of 'Schwa' With Examples in English The term  schwa  (from the Hebrew; pronounced SHWA with alternate spelling shwa) was first used in  linguistics  by the 19th-century German  philologist  Jacob Grimm. The  schwa is the most common vowel sound in English, represented as É™ in the International Phonetic Alphabet. Any vowel letter can stand for the schwa sound. Only words with two or more syllables may have a schwa, which is also called the  mid-central vowel. The schwa represents a mid-central vowel in an unstressed syllable, such as the second syllable in the word woman and the second syllable in the word buses.   Examples and Observations It is extremely important. ... to recognize that pronouncing unstressed vowels as schwa is not lazy or sloppy. All native speakers of Standard English, including the Queen of England, the Prime Minister of Canada, and the President of the United States, use schwa.(Avery, Peter and Susan Ehrlich. Teaching American English Pronunciation, Oxford University Press, 1992.) Reduced Vowels Vowels change in quality when they are reduced. The reduced vowel tends to be not only very short but also very unclear, producing an obscure sound that is hard to identify. Consider, as an example, the name of the California town Orinda, pronounced /É™rin-dÉ™/, with the first vowel and the last vowel reduced to schwa. Only the second vowel in the word, the stressed vowel, maintains its clarity. The other two vowels are very unclear.(Gilbert, Judy B. Clear Speech: Pronunciation and Listening Comprehension in North American English, 3rd ed., Cambridge University Press, 2005.) Dialectal Variations in Schwa Usage If you listen for it, you can hear schwa in all sorts of places where syllables arent stressed- for example, at the beginnings of words like official, occasion, event, and fatigue. Many people... feel that schwa-ful pronunciations are lazy, but really you would sound pretty odd if you did pronounce the full vowel in place of schwa in these words. Pronunciations like ohfficial and ohccasion sound unnatural and rather theatrical. Schwa also occurs in the middle of words like coronation and afterwards. Again, it would be peculiar not to sound schwa in this position- for instance, corohnation for coronation. ... Schwa usage varies greatly between dialects. Australian English speakers often put schwas in places where British and American speakers wont. Striking differences are also now appearing as a consequence of the worldwide spread of English.(Burridge, Kate. Blooming English: Observations on the Roots, Cultivation and Hybrids of the English Language, Cambridge University Press, 2004.) Schwa and Zero Schwa In terms of duration- a phonetic property that the IPA vowel chart does not indicate- schwa is typically quite short, and this short duration may covary with its tendency to be coarticulated. ... [G]iven its short duration and its consequent tendency to camouflage itself to its context through coarticulation, schwa may be confused with its absence, setting up a situation in which schwa-zero alternations may take hold in a system...(Silverman, Daniel. Schwa The Blackwell Companion to Phonology, edited by Marc van Oostendorp et al., Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.) Schwa and English Spelling For the most part, the schwa vowel sound in a two-syllable word is identified by the uh pronunciation and sound. Oftentimes, children spell chocolate as choclat, separate as seprate, or memory as memry. The schwa vowel is thus omitted. The vowel sound schwa is also found in two-syllable words such as alone, pencil, syringe, and taken. Children commonly misrepresent the schwa vowel and spell these words: ulone for alone, pencol for pencil, suringe for syringe, and takin for taken. It is still the vowel in the unstressed syllable that is featured in this case. ... This time, it is substituted with another incorrect vowel. These aforementioned misunderstandings generally disappear as the child advances in his reasoning and knowledge of the English language, learns conventional alternatives for representing sounds, and begins to apply patterning including syllables and a visual sense to his spelling.(Heembrock, Roberta. Why Kids Cant Spell: A Practical Guide to the Missing Component in Language Proficiency, Rowman Littlefield, 2008.) Schwa and the Evolution of Language [T]here is one vowel, now quite common in the languages of the world, that is ... unlikely to have been in the inventories of earliest languages. This is the schwa vowel, [É™], as in the second syllable of English sofa. ... In English, schwa is the classic weak vowel, not used in any crucial contrasting function, but as a variant of (almost) any vowel in unstressed position. ... Not all languages have a schwa vowel, weakening an unstressed vowel as English does. But many languages with similar rhythmic properties to English have an equivalent to the English schwa vowel. It seems likely that the earliest languages, before they had had time to evolve such weakening rules, would not have had a schwa vowel.(Hurford, James R. The Origins of Language, Oxford University Press, 2014.)